ARAKAN, THE LAND OF BUDDHISM

ARAKAN, THE LAND OF BUDDHISM - A Brief History of Mahamuani by
Khaing Kyaw Kyaw

According to almost all Arakanese chronicles, it is asserted that the Mahamuni Image
was cast during the reign of King Candasuriya of Arakan in the middle of six century
B.C. when the Lord Buddha in his life time made his sojourn to Dhanyawadi, the
ancient city of Arakan.1 ( the old site of Dhanyawadi is situated on the focus of East
longitude 93º 3´ and North Latitude 20º 52´).


However the modern historians believe it may have been in the second century A.D.2
Among the several places where King Ashoka of India (273-236 B.C) had sent the
Buddhist missionaries, it included the name "Mahinsaka". 3 Mahinsaka is the ancient
name of Arakan.4 In the Rakhaing Medhapinnya Mawguan Lunga, it was composed
such as that Rakkha Pura (Arakan) either possesses the name "Mahinsaka".


The Indian people especially of Bengal call the Arakanese as "Magh" or "Mogh".5
Magh may have also been derived from Mahinsaka/Mahka/Makh which sounds
"Magh" or "Mogh".6 In Bengali literature, the vowel (a) sounds as (o). The Bengali
people may have called Arakanese as Magh/Mogh or Maghad in sense of the people
from Mahinsaka (Arakan).

Mahamuni Image and its Long Events

In 81 A.D. the King Nagarasinda of Thayekhittaya (Burma) had made his journey to
Arakan to worship the Mahamuni image.1 The King Suriya who ascended the throne
of Arakan in 272 A.D had greatly devoted to it.2 Prince Mahataing Candra, founder
of Chittagong, son of King Suriya (272-327 A.D) built a new temple at Mahamuni by
the approval of his father.

Before the accomplishment of it, the King Suriya had passed away and his son, prince
Mahataing Candra, succeeded the throne in 327 A.D. He made a golden crown
embellished with rubies and offered it to the Mahamuni image. During his rule in
Arakan the Mahatheras from Ramanya (Mon) and Sri Lanka made the pilgrimage to
the Mahamuni pagoda.3 He was succeeded by his son Suriya Candra.

During the rule of King Suriya Candra in Arakan, the pedestal of the image was burnt
down. He substituted it with a new one of marble stone and renovated the temple with
the teak wood. After completing it he performed a great merit ceremony.4

In 776 A.D. during the reign of King Pe Phru in Arakan, the alien from the North had
settled in the east of the hill-site of Mahamuni Shrine. They dug the treasure stored
under the pedestal of the image and set fire the building of Gandakudi (The location
where the Mahamuni image was housed).5

In 980 A.D. another settlement could be found from the wild northern part of the
Arakan and they have occupied the area ofÿ Mahamuni. They tried to bring the image
to their place and when it was unsuccessful they took the treasure and melted the
statue. When they found it all in vain, the image was left behind. Thus the Mahamuni
image could not be found out for three years and five months.6

King Anawratha, founder of the first Burmese Dynasty in Burma, ( who ascended the
throne of Pagan in 1044 A.D.), himself came to Arakan and tried to bring the image to
Burma. Later he had given up his previous plan and constructed the new temple at the
shrine and came back to Pagan.7

Athinkhara Raza who became king of Pincha Dynasty of Arakan in 1068 A.D.
rebeautified Mahamuni shrine again.8

In 11 century A.D in time of King Foonthan of Pincha in Arakan, the King of Pagan
sent fifty thousand warriors, five hundred ministers and a Mahathera. They encamped
at Cetootaya and begged the permission from the Arakanese king for the construction
of a new temple at the Mahamuni. After getting the agreement from the King
Foonthan of Arakan, they built a new Gandakudi and planted the Sanga trees at four
locations of the Mahamuni."9

In 1103 A.D. the Paganians came to Arakan to confer Lakkyamunnan the throne of
Arakan when it was in absence of king. They destroyed Mahamuni images and cut off
the legs and hollowed the back in hunt for the treasure.10

Mahamuni was being lost till six successors of Arakanese kings Lakkyamunnan,
Thiharaza, Thakyawangree, Thakyawannge to Koliya in Arakan. The King Datharaza
who succeeded the throne of Parin Dynasty of Arakan in 1123 A.D. tried to search for
the lost image and found out it by the help of Mro Lord Rahoungla in the wild sinking
up to the neck under the ground, the right hand broken and a big hole on the back. He
brought it back to old Dhanyawadi and placed it on its former Katanyuta Hill.11

King Ngahnaloon who succeeded the throne of Nerinsara in 1246 A.E. was the last
King of Taung Ngoo Dynasty of Arakan. During his rule in Arakan, the temple of
Mahamuni was ruined by a great storm.12

In time of King Alaumaphru, successor of King Ngahnaloon (1246-1250 A.D.) and
founder of Laungrek Dynasty (1250 to 1430 A.D.), the temple of Mahamuni had been
rebuilt and it was burnt down again in 1354 A.D.13

King Mong Saw Mon (1406-1433 A.D.) founded Mrauk U in 1430 A.D. He paved the
road from Mrauk U to Mahamuni and dug several ponds and lakes along the way. In
1439 A.D. King Mong Khaki (Ali Khan), the successor of Mong Saw Mon brought
the Pitaka from Sri Lanka and offered them to the Mahamuni.14

King Mong Ba or Mong Bun (Sri Suryachandra Dharm), (Jobouk Shah) (1531-1553
A.D.) made a great merit on the conquest of twelve towns of Bengal in 1536 A.D. He
cast thousands of Buddha images resemble to Mahamuni and constructed many
shrines and pagodas across Arakan, enshrined the images therein.15

King Mong Razagree (1593-1612 A.D.), grand son of Mong Ba renovated the temple
of Mahamuni and celebrated a one-thousand-monks ordination ceremony at the
Mahamuni temple.16

During the reign of Sandathudhamma (1652-1674 A.D.) the temple and Wunmana
Kyi (rice store) were burnt down in 1647 A.D. The King constructed a new temple in
1658 A.D. and finished it in that era.17

In 1674 A.D. the son of King Sandathu-dhamma, King Ukkabala succeeded the
throne and made the pilgrimage to Mahamuni. In time of King Waradhamma who
became king of Arakan in 1684 A.D., many monasteries and Uppasampada temples
(where monk-ordination is performed) were build around the Mahamuni pagoda and
eight thousand monks were ordained within one year.18

In 1710 A.D., the Burmese king Thirimaha Thuradhamma had sent two missionaries
of Weluthara and Sandataraza and they asked permission for the construction of a
new temple at Mahamuni whereas the king of Arakan denied it.19

In 1718 A.D. the palace of Mrauk U, the temple of Mahamuni, other 8000
monasteries and 800 Uppasampada Temples were built by the king of Arakan.20

In 1761 and 1762 A.D. there was a pair of earthquake in Arakan and the roof and the
walls of the temple were collapsed down. In 1764 A.D. the lord of Rembree
succeeded the throne of Arakan by the name of Abayamaharaza. In Pratho (10th
month of Arakanese Era, January) of the same year, the main temple of Mahamuni
was burnt down and he reconstructed it in 1127 A.E. (1765 A.D).21

During the reign of King Sandasumanaraza of Arakan, the king of Eve of Burma,
Sinphyu Shin (Lord of white elephant), sent a delegation of pilgrimage led by
Surinchakka to Arakan and they arrived at Mahamuni on Saturday of 8th waxing of
Tawthalunn (6th month of A.E. September) in 1136 A.E. (1774 A.D.).22

King Mahathamadaraza ascended the throne in 1784 A.D. and two years latter in
1784 there was a great flood of Gaiccapanadi (Kaladan river) which lasted for seven
days. Among the people who sought shelter at the Mahamuni temple, the three
women had given birth to three babies by the same time and a giant log reached onto
the pedestal of Mahamuni Image. At night the people could hear the odd crises and
sounds of trumpets and see the bad omens.

On hearing such odd events, King Maha-thamadaraza came to the Mahamuni on
Thursday of 14th waning of Waso in 1146 A.E. (1784 A.D.). On Saturday of 7th
waning of Pratho in 1146 A.E., on 30th December 1784, the Burmese King Bodaw
Maung Wyne occupied Arakan and took Mahamuni Image, and it reached at the
Sagaing harbour on 2nd waning after Kasone full-moon in 1147 A.E. (1785 A.D.).23
Mandalay Mahamyatmuni pagoda is the great Mahamuni Image of Arakan.
.................................
INDEX

1. Tun Shwe Khine (M.A.): "History of Mahamuni" (in Burmese), 1991.

2. Dr. Qanungo: "History of Chittagong" (in English), 1986.

3. Ahn Maung (M.A.): "2500 years of Buddhism" (in Burmese).

4. However, the historians of India have identified "Mahinsaka" as present "Mysore"
of India. Kyaw Zan tha (M.A.): "Buddhism in Arakan before Yedhamma" (Rakhine
Tazaung Magazine), 1980, p.20.

5. "Magh", nowadays, has the notorious sense as "Pirate" because the"Magh" or
"Rakhaing" who were clever at the maritime warfare had often raided "Bengal" by the
sea-route during the glorious age of golden "Mrauk U".

6.

a) More research works should be done on this view point.

b) "Magh" is allied to Sanskrit word "Magh" which means "Superior". (Dr. Qanungo:
"History of Chittagong", 1986.)

c) Some scholars believe the word "Magh" is a derivation from "Maghada" of India.
(San Tha Aung (M.A): The Mog or the Magh or the Arakanese in Bangladesh.)
(Chittagong Gazetteer (Government of Bangladesh), 1974.)

d) "Magh", in Bengali Literature, is pronounced "Mogh". So is "Mahinsaka"
pronounced as "Mohinsoko" and may be corrupted into "Mohinsoko/ Mohko/ Mokh/
Mogh.

1.

a) Chan Htwan Oung: The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan, J.B.R.S. (Journal of Burma
Research Society).

b) Oo Kala Maharazawin (in Burmese), Vol. III, p.104.

c) Hmannanrazawin (in Burmese), Vol. III, p.104.

2. Sandamalalungara, Rakhaing Razawunthaik-kyan (in Burmese), Vol.III, p.104.

3.

a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.286.

b) Dr. Forchammer; The Mahamuni Pagoda, p.6.

4. Kyauk Roe Razawun, (Palm scripture in Arakanese)

5.

a) Dr. Forchammer, The Mahamuni Pagoda, p.6.

b) U Nyo Mya: Koombaung Shapoondaw, p.154.

c) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.307.

d) Arakanese Princess Yaingcrong (Hantha-wadi Print) (in Arakanese), Stanza-14.

8. Chan Htwan Oung, Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan. J.B.R.S., P.263.

7. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.316

8. Dr. Forchammer: Arakan, p.6.

9.

a. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.323.

b. Dr. Forchammer: Arakan, p.6.

10.

a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.316

b) San Shwe Bu: The Story of Mahamuni, J.B.R.S., P.226

11.

a) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan: Vol. I, p.130, 323, 329, 331.

b) San Shwe Bu: The Story of Mahamuni, J.B.R.S., P.226, 227, 228

c) Dhanyawadi Razawunthaikkyan, p.118.

d) Dr. Forchammer: Mahamuni shrine in Arakan, p.265.

e) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun (Palm scripture in Arakanese), "Za" Sheet.

f) Sara Ngame Razawun and Rhihoung Razawun (Manuscript copy from palm
scripture).

12.

a) Dhanyawadi Razawunthaikkyan, p.120.

b) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun, (Palm Scripture), "Zau" Sheet.

13.

a) Dr. Forchammer: Mahamuni Pagoda, p.6.

b) U Nyo Mya: Koombaung Shapoondaw, "Mahamuni History", p.155.

14. Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun (Palm scripture in Arakanese), "Lau" Sheet.

15. Ibid. (Twelve towns of Bengal are (1) Gatapalan (2) Kana (3) Chittagong (4)
Padikhara (5)

Tilinga (6) Comilla (7) Barisal (8) Moksuja (9) Dacca (10) Ganga-Sagara (11)
Rounphru and (12)

Sylhet.

16. Ibid.

17. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I., p.241.

18. U Nyo Mya: Mahamuni History, p.155.

19. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I., p.243

20.

a) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun (Palm Scripture), "Taw" Sheet.

b) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.244.

c) Dhanyawadi Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.277.

21.

a) Rakhaing Sgabre Razawun, (Palm Scripture), "Htan" Sheet.

b) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.270.

c) Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. I, p.276, 279.

22. Rakhaing Razawunthaikkyan, Vol. II, p.276, 279.

23. Ibid.

24. Arakanese Year (A.E.) English Year:

1. Thanku 1. April

2. Kasone 2. May

3. Nanyone 3. June

4. Waso 4. July

5. Wakhaung 5. August

6. Tawthalunn 6. September

7. Wakywat 7. October

8. Tansaungbone 8. November

9. Nattaw 9. December

10. Pratho 10. January

11. Taboohtwe 11. February

12. Taboung 12. March

Note: The Arakanese months are not fixed with English months every year as
mentioned in the

table.

*( A.E. = Arakanese Era )

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THE STORY OF MAHAMUNI

By SAN SHWE BU
(J.B.R.S Vol. 6, Part3. 1916)


The great outstanding feature in the history of Arakan is the account of Buddha's sojourn in this country and of his supervision over the casting of his image. The story of his seven day's visit with five hundred Rahandas--- his lengthly discourse pregnant with prophesy delivered on the top of the hill opposite the town of Kyauktaw-- His Journey into the city of Dynnyawaddi at the request of King Sanda Thurya--- the casting of the image by men and gods, have been very clearly set fourth by the able researches of the late Dr. Forchammer and need hardly be mentioned again in the present sketch. The Mahamuni tradition is the oldest of the kind we have. It permeates the whole religious history of Arakan and the images that at present sanctify a thousand temples and pagodas in this country are the replicas of the first great and only faithful copy of the Master.


Interesting as all these facts may appear there is however one great flaw which defies any attempt at reasonable explanation. King Sanda Thurya ascended the throne of Arakan in 146 A.D_ all available records are pretty well clear on this point. If we take 483 B.C as the date of Buddha's death there is a very large gap of over six hundred years between the two events, viz:_ his sojourn in Arakan and his death at Kusinara. This is a very big thing to explain away and judging from the extreme paucity of documents that treat of those far-away days. I am inclined to think that the problem is one likely to be added to the long list of unsolved riddles of the universe. It is true books belonging to this country have a fatal defect, that they represent facts and beliefs at the time they were written, or acquire the from in which we now find them, without much reference to facts at the time at which they are supposed

to have happened. Besides this Burmese books especially bear unmistakable signs of being treated, that is to say, they often take up an important event, enlarge upon it, and then relate how it was prophesied_ generally by Buddha_many centuries before.

In spite of these adverse peculiarities of the East I entirely agree with the learned Doctor that the Mahamuni Tradition is not an after-thought. It is genuinely old and was implicitly believed in by successive generations that came after it. Kings of Arakan, even after they had shifted their capitals to various other places, always recognised it as a sacred duty to visit it from time to time and generally made it the occasion for great religious feasts of charity. In such cases they invariably left some votive offering, may be a small shrine or an image, as a memento of their distinguished visit. On the other hand it is not my purpose here to try and reconcile this great discrepancy in time as I am convinced of the utter futility of the task. The very fact that neither Buddha nor any of his five hundred Rahandas who accompanied him into Arakan ever made mention of this unique event in the many subsequent discourses delivered in India is sufficient to tempt one to lay down the pen so far as this point is concerned.

My scheme in the present work is simply to trace the history of this famous image from the time of its installation on a small hill close to the ancient city of Dannyawaddi till it was finally carried away to Mandalay by Bodawpaya of Burma . So this is really a continuation of the story begun by Forchammer but in which I propose dealing with principal events only. After the sacred image was finished and suitably installed it was allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of over nine centuries. During that time it became the religious centre of the kingdom and all its neighboring states. Its fame spread far and wide and it so worked on the envy of the Burmans that much of the early wars between these two people were actuated by the sole desire on the part of Burmese kings to remove the image into their country.

In 1078 A.D.Min Bhi-lu of Arakan was killed by a noble who usurped the throne. Min Re-baya the heir apparent fled with his family and took shelter at the court of Kyan-sittha of Pagan. The fugitive prince remained in exile for twenty five years during which time a son was born to Min Re-baya and is known in history as Let-yar-min-nan. It is true that Kyan-sittha promised to restore the royal fugitive to the Arakanese throne but the lack of suitable opportunity prevented that monarch from redeeming his promise. On the death of Min-Re-baya Alaung-si-thu who had already succeeded his grandfather determined to place Let-yar-min-nan on the throne of Arakan. To carry out this object he sent 100,000 Pyus and an equal number of Talaings both by land and sea into Arakan.

There was some show of stub-born resistance at first which the more disciplined troops of Burma gradually but surely overcame. Thus Let-ya-min-Nan came unto his own in 1103 A.D. and as the Pyus were instrumental in bringing this about he is also known to the Arakanese as ysLwmodef;rif; (the king created by the 100,000 Pyus). When these soldiers had accomplished their task and just on the eve of their departure for Burma they visited the shrine of Mahamuni. There they found it so richly stored with gems and gold that overcoming all religious scruples they began to despoil the temple of all its vast wealth. From the image itself the Pyus scooped out the greater portion of the back, the Talaings cut off the whole right leg and carried away these treasures into their country__ a distinct fulfillment of Gotama's dicta.

When Let-yar-min-nan came to Arakan the capital was Ping-tsa. On his astrologers advising him that the city was no longer fit for occupation because all its good fortune had departed, he found the new city of Parin. Fifty years after this Da-tha-raza ascended the throne. The new king was powerful and just and the country enjoyed general peace and prosperity. Following the example of all pious kings who went before him he decided to visit Mahamuni. His Ministers were sent in advance to make the necessary preparations for his stay there. But they return with the information that the temple could not be found. He then entrusted these men with his personal jewel instructed them to give away as reward to any person or persons who could direct them to sacred spot. After much trouble and by the assistance of two Mros they found the place__ the men being rewarded as ordered by the king. When news of the discovery reached the royal ears he immediately set out for the place with his entire court. The image was found in the ground buried up to the neck. The right leg and the greater part of the back were missing. The shrine was completely destroyed by fire. The king at once saw the exposed nature of the place. He knew that its general isolation among the hills was the too frequent cause of the shrine being desecrated by the wild tribes who made periodic visits of plunder into these parts. He therefore conveyed the image by water into the ancient city of Dinnyawaddy.

The chronicles tell us that invitations were then issued to all the neighbouring kings and princes to visit Arakan and share with him the supreme merit to be acquired by undertaking the entire repairs of the most sacred image and shrine. The gathering of ruling princes was a representative one. First they repaired the image itself by supplying the missing parts. Then they erected the shrine on which were lavished all the skill, energy and resources they could command. In the building of the surrounding walls the work was proportionately divided between the different races that were present. Thus some were asked to carry out the work on the east of the shrine, some to the south and so on. The temple and the walls were decorated with exquisite carving. The latter contained human figures representing all the races of the earth. There is no doubt about it that this second building of Mahamuni was a great historic event. What little is left of it at the present day amply proves it. The spot selected was a small hill at the north east corner of the city. The nine kutis of treasure left buried by king Sanda Thurya was also unearthed, removed and buried again at the northern end of this hill. The stone slab placed on the mouth of the pit was so immense that a thousand men, say the chronicles, would not even be sufficient to shift it from the place. The whole thing was finished in seventy-one days.

Several races undertook to visit the temple once in every three months for the purpose of carrying out such minor repairs as were considered necessary from time to time. But some of the tributary tribes were given definite work to perform and were required to always leave behind certain persons to guard the place. The details of the allotment of such specific duties were also recorded in stone tablets at the four cardinal points. These records no longer exits in their usual places though I am told they were there until quite recently by an authority of no mean repute.

In the closing scene of its variegated history Bodawpaya of Burma comes in__ a fit character for a fit occasion. After his final conquest and so- called pacification “solitudinem faciunt pacem appellant” he directed the famous image to be conveyed into Burma. This was accomplished in the year 1785 A.D.. The excess of patriotic fervor led some people a few years ago to declare that the real image was lost in the creek close to the site in the course of its removal and that the soldiers fearing the king’s wrath took away a substitute. Attractive as this country proclaims the image that now adorns the Arakan pagoda at Mandalay to be the genuine one.

It will be seen that the present account deals with the principal events only. But it must not be supposed that during the long interval between these epochs the image and the shrine were allowed to remain in peace. The frontier tribes such as the Chins, the Mros and the Saks periodically descended from their mountain homes and harassed the kingdom whenever it was known the ruler of the country was weak or incapable. On such occasions they always made it a point to visit the shrine and after taking away all the riches it contained they invariably set fire to it. Whenever this happened the then reigning king would fourth with rebuild it and make good the loss. In the chronicles this occurs with painful regularity.


What seems to me to be rather a curious fact is that even at the time of Da-tha-raza, towards the middle of the 12th century, this well-known temple and image could not be easily found. At the present day none of us has any idea of the original site though the chronicles describe the place pretty clearly. I think there are two reasons to account for this. In the first the names of hills and creeks in familiar use in those days are no longer employed now; and the daily occupation of all our time in western education and per suits has so alienated our interests that it has become almost impossible for us to identify the old names with the present ones. Secondly the abundant rainfall so favors the rapid growth of vegetation that the few years of neglect is sufficient to entirely cover up any structure with dense jungle. But whatever the true reason may be it would be tremendously worth our while to discover this spot as there is no knowing what interesting archaeological finds we may come across.

Read more...

Trinco temples under Arakan Bhikku's by Bandu de Silva

Controversy surrounds the origins of the temples at Trincomalee where today a modern Hindu Kovil, popularly called Koneswaram has been set up. Though a tradition is quoted in support of the antiquity of the modern Hindu temple dating to the time of a mythical ruler named Kulakoddayan, after the Portuguese Captain General Azavedo destroyed the old temple complex and his successor Constantine de Sa removed the material from the destroyed temples to build a fortalice overlooking the bay, nothing remained there except the Bodhi tree where occasionally offerings were made by different people to their respective deities.

This Bodhi tree like the Bodhi tree at Killiveddi in Trincomalee district (Sansoni Commission Report) and in the Jaffna peninsula (Guruge), was destroyed between 1956 and 1964. The observations by Alexander Alexander, the first British writer (1805) who was a gunner in the Trincomalee garrison in his two volume book, makes no mention of temples in his time but a small church and people performing some rites from time to time at a spot close to the sea and a young man being ordained which is obviously a reference to an ordination of a Buddhist monk (samanera). He also saw a temple nearby where the occupants looked very austere and on the walls of whose gloomy looking building were paintings of crocodiles (Makara designs?).

The accounts of the temples given by Fernao de Queyroz, the 17th century Portuguese chronicler based on records left by the Jesuit priest Francis Xavier, who had visited the place and the fathers of the order of Francis and others, which are the first available European observations on the temples, religious practices of the place and about those who were in possession of the temples, make it abundantly clear that the place destroyed by Azavedo and de Sa was a temple complex that was under the chief Buddhist monk (Mahaterunnanse) of Arakan (Rakkhanga-desa in Sinhalese texts) and was administered on the spot by another monk (Terunnanse) of lesser standing and his Ganzes (Ganinnanses). The latter were samaneras or monks in training. Queyroz makes the observation that it would take about 20 years before one could reach the status of a Terunnnanse. Another description gives a post-Portuguese origin to the word Ganinnanse in that they were not fully ordained and wore white robes to evade persecution by the Portuguese after the latter prohibited Buddhist monks and teachers visiting territories under their control. Another explanation is that Ganinnanses were laymen who remained in (white) robes in order to claim temple property which became hereditary in the family. (Tradition recorded in the Kandyan perod; also see by E. R. Sarachchandra).

Trincomalee-Arakan connection

The Buddhist connection between Arakan and Sri Lanka from around the 14th century onwards has been the subject of several scholarly studies by Sir D. B. Jayatileke using the Sinhalese text Curnika (British Library and Colombo Museum), Dr. P. E. Fernando (University Review, 1959 using the same sources) and Dr. Lodewijk Wagenaar, Director of Hague Archives, (RAS Journal, vol. XLVIII) and by the present writer (RAS Academic Sessions 2006). My efforts were directed to the evidence furnished by Queyroz which the other three writers had missed in their studies and which has been selectively used by Tamil scholars (e.g. S. Pathmanathan) suppressing the major part of Queyroz’s evidence which is not supportive of the Tamil tradition.

The known Arakan connection commenced with the founding of Maruk-U in 1433 as the last capital of Arakan “when the Golden Age of Arakan Theravada Buddhism saw the import of many copies of Tripitaka which were placed around the image of Mahamuni“. A replica of the Sacred Tooth Relic from Sri Lanka was also placed at Andaw Stupa during the reign of Min-Bin (1531-71). According to the Mahavamsa the link with Arakan was maintained even during the time of Vimaladharmasurya I (1592-1604) who, reversing the process after the Portuguese onslaught on Buddhism, successfully sent envoys to Arakan to invite bhikkus to come to the island to celebrate the much needed Upasampada and bring over Ven. Nandicakka and other monks. Vimaladharmasuriya II also sent a successful mission to Arakan (1693) and invited Ven. Santana to come over. The Colombo Museum Curnika Pota and the British Museum Rakkhangasasana Curnikava and Mahavamsa give some information about the three missions made to Arakan for this purpose. King Kirthi Sri Rajasimha like Parakramabahu VI of Kotte turned to Siam after this source dried up due to political turmoil.

An explanation for the connection of Trincomalee with Arakan, to which Queyroz refers for the first time, is not forthcoming from other sources. Queyroz mentions that the state (of Trincomalee) and the maritime areas including the surroundings of the temples (pagode) was subject to Mahaterunnanse of Arakan and the temples were administered by the Ganzes of the “Sect of Budum” who were subject to him; who also received the produce of lands at “Tambalagama and Gantale”, while a Vanea shared the administration of the interior. He states further that the chief of the Ganzes who was a Terunnanse, a man of around 40 years, was converted by Francis Xavier during his visit to Trincomalee. The events described by Queyroz fall between the historical space between 1533, around the time Francis Xavier could have visited Trincomalee and 1623/4 when Constantine de Sa built the fortalice there using the stone work of demolished temples.

The power of the “Ganzes of the sect of Budum” over the Vanniya is demonstrated by Queyroz’s reference to the fact that when he became a convert to Christianity he was stoned to death by the people of the former.

Analysis of evidence

There is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the testimony of Queyroz which is based on information left behind by Francis Xavier and the fathers of the order of St. Francis who were in Trincomalee and others. It is the first detailed account on Trincomalee from a Western view that has come down to us. His account of the temples, their possession and administration and the nature of worship conducted there do not correspond with the popular Hindu tradition surrounding them but, obviously, provides an alternative dimension of the real state of affairs during the 16th and 17th centuries from the perspective of an observer who had no partisan interest in the local controversy over the temples. There is no reason for him or his sources to have ignored the Hindu tradition on the Koneswaram temple in preference to what he presented, had such an ancient Hindu tradition been present at the time. Significantly, even the name Konesar or Koneswaram does not appear in Queyroz’s record though he mentions other temples in India by name such as Ramessaram, Conjeevaram, Tripati, Tremel, (Bisnaga), Jaganati, and Vixante but he calls Trincomalee more popular than other temples and describes it as Rome of the Gentiles. Why the silence on the part of the Portuguese chronicler about the name of the temple complex at Trincomalee (he was so meticulous about details) had it been then known as Koneswaram?

This does not mean that he calls it by its Buddhist name either, but he is quite clear when he refers to the “Idol of Budum” (Buddha) in this place where sacrifices were made and emphasises that the temples were administered by the “Ganzes of the Sect of Budum” whom he says were more numerous in the country and were under a Terunnanse who was subject to Mahaterunnanse of Arakan, that the place was associated with Buddhist worship.

He repeats this in another place adding emphasis. He even makes a distinction about the areas of jurisdiction of the Mahaterunnanse and the Vanea when he says that the former held the state including the surroundings of the temples (pagodes) while the Vanea shared the area. Elsewhere he puts it less ambiguously when he says the Vanea was the lord of the interior of the country, for as we said, the maritime lands were subject to the Terunnanse (book 2, p. 245-6). Queyroz knew enough about Hinduism and Buddhism and the practioners of the two religions, Brahamins and Terunn-anses/ Gansez respectively, so as not to mix up the two, as his long discourses about the two religions show. He even refers to “Jadecas” (Yakdessa as translated by Fr. S. G. Perera) who evidently performed the sacrificial ritual and not to Brahamin priests whom one would expect to be associated with temples of Hindu worship.

The circumstances of the close relations established between Sri Lanka and Arakan during the height of prosperity of Kotte which reached a peak around 1433 when Maruk-U became the capital of Arakan and continued during the rule of Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy, are also in favour of Trincomalee having been under the strong influence of Arakan Buddhists. Parallels are found at Buddha Gaya when the kings of Myanmar played a key role as benefactors of that premier Buddhist centre. For example, in 1412, King Dhammacetiya of Pegu sent a contingent of craftsmen under a Sri Lankan merchant to Buddha Gaya to worship the temple and make plans for it (Ven. Dhammika: Buddhagaya).

A few remaining archaeological finds including the Padhanagara built by Aggabodhi V (8th century), the trunk of a stone Buddha statue and a better preserved “Buddha Pada” stone lying nearby would confirm Queyroz’s version (Sirisaman Wijetunge: Hela Urumaya and evidence on location).

Nature of worship

The other evidence that Queyroz furnishes concerns the nature of religious worship conducted at Trincomalee. The evidence points to more than a single type of ritual. He refers to three temples of which the one on the highest eminence was the principal one. The one nearest to the sea was given to a sacrificial ritual. The third temple does not figure in the descriptions.

The principal shrine was what attracted the mariners when they spotted it from a distance from the sea. One should not be off the mark if one concluded that this particular shrine was dedicated to a deity venerated by seafarers as it had been usual around the sea ports around the island and in other lands. An object for worship of seafarers could have attracted equal attention from mariners of different nations and faiths as the shrine at Devinuvara attracted in the 15th century (demonstrated by the trilingual inscription found at Galle) shows. The shrines at Kataragama, Adams Peak, Madhu and St. Anthony’s Church at Kochchikade are other examples of multiple participation in worship.

Considering that it was a time when a number of powerful and resourceful kingdoms had sprung up in the rest of South East Asia, commencing from Arakan and including the Pegu, Aramana, Sukhotya, Sailendra kingdoms, Sri Vijaya, Champa, Majpahat and others, and that the centre of political gravity had passed into his region (except during the period of the rise of imperial Colas), many of which were Buddhist kingdoms practising Mahayanic Tantric forms introduced from Bengal, it could be expected that links with Sri Lanka and South India and Bengal were maintained by the dynasties which ruled over these lands.

The construction in 1005 AD of a Buddhist temple at Nagapattana in Coromendal coast in South India named Chulamanivarmavihara by a king from Sri Vijaya and Kadaram (Kedah in Malaya peninsula) to which the Cola king Rajaraja dedicated a village for its maintenance, was a good example of this intercourse. Even earlier, Balaraja, another Sailendra ruler, maintained close links with South India. Later, when Colas became hostile to these kingdoms over issues of trade, Trincomalee which was under them could have played a role in the expeditions sent there.

Under the Sri Vijaya kingdom, Avalokitesvara worship became the most popular form of worship. Many examples of this Bodhisatva sculptures have been discovered all over South East Asia as far as the Philippines. Even earlier, this popular form of Bodhisatva worship especially among mariners spread even to East Africa during Kushana times as seen from hordes of Kushana coins discovered here. Trade and religious links between Sri Lanka and the South Eastern kingdoms continued during the hey day of Polonnaruva rule and we see the links continuing during the Dambadeniya rule and later Kotte and Kandyan rule. The Mahayana form of worship which commenced in and around Trincomalee in the time of king Mahasena (3rd century) became more identified with Avalokitesvara worship during the time of its popularity in South Asia. Trincomalee as the southern most port which served the commercial link with these kingdoms, came under Avalokitesvara worship in a big way. Apart from the fragments of remains of sculptures at Trincomalee, there is host of archaeological remains now exhibited at the National Museum in Colombo (also exhibited by UNESCO in Paris and London as part of the Cultural Triangle project), and of Tara, the consort of Avalokitesvara (note the famous image in the British Museum), to support the presence of Avalokitesvara worship in the Trincomalee area from 7th century onwards.

Tantrism which originated in India, first in the Yogacarya school of Buddhism and in which Nalanda where Vajrabodhi who introduced it to China played a big role (he spent five months in Sri Vijaya on the way to China), took root in South East Asian kingdoms. The Buddhist bairava worship cult as seen from such statues as a Heruka from Biaro Bahal II in Padang Lawas, King Adityavarman in the shape of a Buddhist bairava and others point to the extent to which Buddhism underwent change in these parts under Tantric influences.

The relevance of this discussion is to inquire if a cult of worship of deceased rulers of the island concentrated at Trincomalee as Queyroz refers to. The human sacrifice (as offered to goddess Kali or Durga) that had been practiced at shrines on the rock over the sea at Trincomalee (the closest to the sea), which Queyroz refers to as sepulchers of deceased rulers, could have existed side by side in bairava form as was practiced in Java.

According to Queyroz’s evidence, there were two types of sacrifice at Trincomalee. One was the where devotees “throw themselves down in sacrifice to their idols reaching the bottom in pieces being persuaded that by that leap into Hell they are lifted up to the Paradise” (Book 1, pp 66-67). The other sacrifice he refers to on the authority of Antonio Monis Baretto who was sent by Francis Xavier to help Bhuvanekabahu VII in his wars against Sitawaka and Kandy and to convert the King, was to the latter sacrificing 300 men captured in the war against Sitawaka to “the idol of Budum” (Book 2, p. 274). It can be reasonably assumed from Queyroz’s description that the second type of sacrifice could also have taken place to the idol in the shrine closest to the sea from where others sacrificed themselves rather than at the shrine which received the veneration of the mariners even though Queyroz refers to the second sacrifice as one made to the “idol of Budum”. This aspect was dealt in the earlier article “Trincomalee: Where the Spirits of Ancient Lankan Kings Roam” (The Island, 23rd December 2006).

(http://www.island.lk/2006/12/30/satmag1.html)

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Bangladesh:The history of Arakan, its religions

Source: Plus News Pakistan

Among the 7 Union States of Burma the Rakhine State or the Arakan is the immediate neighbour of the Subcontinent. There might have been some contacts between Arakan and the Subcontinent since the first dynasty of the Arakanese. Buddhism and the Pali language used in Buddhist Canons came very early to the Mons, Arakan and Pyus, much earlier than the emigration of the Burmese in the country which is now Burma. Pyu, Mon and Burmese/Arakanese scripts were based on the South Indian scripts.

The Rakhaings (Arakanese) traditionally believe that they are the descendants of the Sakya Sakis the race from which Lord Gautama Buddha came. Most historians and anthropologists, however, say that they belong to the Tibeto-Burmese groups.

The Arakanese (Rakhaing/Rakhine) believe that their ancestors had to chase out the demon-like beings (most probably Negrito tribes) before they established their first kingdom. After that the people had to be very united to repel the invasions of the tribes they chased out. That's why they named themselves Rakkhita People. The Pali word Rakkhita means „the one who protects his own race. And therefore their country was called „Rakkhita Mandala' and later deviated to 'Rakkhita Mandaing' and then to 'Rakkha Mandaing'. The word Arakan is therefore a derivation of Rakkha Mandaing - Rakhaing - Arakhaing - Arakan.

There is another hypothesis: The Sanskrit word rakshasa, Pali rakkhaso can be translated as the demon of water or an ogre-like being living in water. That's why the etymology of Arakan can be traced as a Sanskrit or Pali words A-Rakkha Desa (The Land which is now free from the Demons). The word Arakan is therefore a derivation of A-Rakkha Desa - A-Rakkhan - Arakan. Sir Arthur Phayre as well as Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell's Hobson-Jobson A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (First Published in 1886) supported this version too.

There is no doubt that the early kingdoms of Arakan were Hindu states. Some Hindu deities were found in ancient cities. However, Hinduism might have been replaced by Buddhism when the kings and people became Buddhists.

According to the legend of the Maha Muni Image, Arakan was already a Buddhist Kingdom during the time of Lord Buddha because Lord Buddha visited Arakan at the invitation of King Sanda Thuriya (Chandra Suriya).

U San Shwe Bu, on the other hand, wrote that King Sanda Thuriya ascended the throne of Arakan in 146 A.D, six hundred years after the Pari Nibanna of Lord Buddha. In contrast to the legend he stated that the statue was casted in the 2nd century AD.

In any case, it is safe to say that Arakan became a Buddhist Land at the beginning of Anno Domini, if not earlier. Since that time Arakan remains a Buddhist land till now and all Arakanese or Rakhaings are devout Buddhists. Nowadays, population ratio between Arakanese and Burmese may be 1:10, however if one compares the number of Buddhist temples, monasteries, monks and nuns the ratio is only 1:4. It is proven how religious Arakanese or Rakhaings were and are.

Arakan was well known to be the Land of Pagodas and Temples. There is a famous Arakanese verse: Thazun pan Khaing ta mraing mraing Rakhaing Phara paung, which was nicely translated into English verse by U Tha Hla as: The Thazun (a type of orchid) sprigs in sheer clusters, Sum the total of the pharas grandeur. According to this verse, there were 6352755 Pharas (Buddha Statues) in Arakan.

Maurice Collis described the situation of Buddhism in the year 1630 during the reign of Min Hayi (Man Hari) alias Thiri Thudhamma (Sri Sudhamma). In his book The Land of the Great Image, in page 168 where it was written: The Buddha had died in 543 B.C. Altogether 2173 years had elapsed since then, and for that immense period the image of the Founder of the Religion had remained on Sirigutta, the oldest, most mysterious, the most holy object in the world. The relics detailed to the disciples on Selagiri had all been found and enshrined. Arakan was a sacred country; it was the heart of Buddhism; and he (King Thiri Thudhamma) as its king, was the most notable Buddhist ruler in existence. Grave indeed was his responsibility. He had not only to maintain the state as the homeland of the Arakanese race, but as the one place on earth where an authentic shape of the Tathagata was preserved, a possession of greater potency than the most precious relics.

All kings of the Mrauk U dynasty, the last dynasty in Arakan, were Buddhists. Some kings had assumed Muslim Titles because, Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City wanted to show his gratitude to the Sultan of Gaur who helped him regain the Arakanese throne in 1430. Hence, he promised the Sultan that the Arakanese kings would bear Pseudonym Muslim Titles. But in fact, all of the Arakanese kings were donors of many temples in Mrauk U as well as in the other parts of Arakan. They did make coins, one side with Burmese/Arakanese scripts and the other side with Persian (NOT Bengali).

For example: Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City with the assumed Muslim Title 'Suleiman Shah' built seven Buddhists temples in Mrauk U. One of them was Laymyetna Phaya (Leemyatna Phara) in Mrauk U (now Mrohaung). His successor and younger brother Min Khayi (Man Khari), who had an assumed Muslim Title 'Ali Khan', erected the Nyidaw Zedi (Satee), which can be roughly translated as 'The Pagoda built by the Younger Brother'. His son and successor King Ba Saw Phru alias Kaliman Shah constructed four Buddhists temples including the Maha Bodi Shwegu Pagoda. His son Dan Ugga alias Daluya, who bore the Muslim Title Moguh Shah, was the donor of Thongyaik Tasu Temple (meaning the temple of Thirty One Buddhas). His successor Min Yan Aung (Man Ran Aung) alias Narui Shah founded the Htupayon Pagoda. Min Bin (Man Ban) had an assumed Muslim Title of Zabauk Shah; was the donor of seven temples including Shit Thaung Phaya (Shite Thaung Phara) or the Temple of Eighty Thousand Buddha Statues. Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) alias Secudah Shah was the donor of six temples including Htukkan Thein, his son Min Yaza Gyi (Man Raza Gri) with the Muslim Title Salem Shah donated Phaya Paw (Phara Paw) Pagoda and Pakhan Thein in Mrauk U and also Shwe Kyaung Pyin Monastery in Thandwe. Min Khamaung, who subjoined the Muslim Title Hussein Shah constructed Yatanapon (Ratanabon) and Yatana Pyethet (Ratana Prethat) Pagodas and his son Thri Thudhamma (meaning the Protector of Buddhist Religion) alias Salem Shah the Second, erected the Sekkya Manaung (Sakkya Manaung) Pagoda.

The Burmese invasion in 1784, led by the Burmese Crown Prince then, was to snatch the Holy Maha Muni Image, the national Symbol of Arakan. Nowadays this colossal image can be seen near Mandalay and the statue is called in colloquial Burmese Phayagyi (Paragri), which is the direct translation of Pali Word Maha Muni. During the British Era this temple was translated as 'Arakan Pagoda'.

Many Portuguese mercenaries served under Arakanese kings since 16th Century A.D. Later, the Dutch mercenaries did the same job. So, there is no doubt that there must have been some Christians in Arakan, but almost all of them were foreigners with very few Arakanese who converted into Christianity through marriage.

According to Maurice Collis and U San Shwe Bu, in 1610 Arakanese King Razagri had appointed his younger son, Min Mangri, Viceroy of Chittagong. This prince was not in good terms with his elder brother and the crown prince then Min Khamaung, the Viceroy of Thandwe. Min Khamaung was a rebellious Prince towards his father, hence the king wanted to replace the position of the crown prince from his elder son to the younger son. However, Min Mangri made friendship with the Portuguese pirate-king Gonsalves Tibau of Sandwip Island. The marriage of Min Mangri's daughter with Tibau's son was agreed and she had to convert into Catholicism. Min Mangri had three children, two daughters and a son. In the year 1610 his son was four years old.

When King Razagri heard of this marriage and realized that this younger son was now allied with the ruffian who had treacherously seized his fleet, in 1612 Razagri sent an army under the Crown Prince Min Khamaung. Min Khamaung took this duty willingly, because his own right to become the future king was threatened. In the battle Min Mangri was shot dead and finally Gonsalves Tibau surrendered. The King of Arakan, decided to pardon Gonsalves Tibau and invited him to contrive some way of saving the young prince and his sister, who were his own grand children.

Meanwhile Min Khamaung had entered Chittagong without opposition and after attending his brother's funeral immediately called for his nephew and niece. When they were not forthcoming, he suspected Tibau, but it was not until afterwards that he learnt they had escaped to the Moghul Empire. Foiled in this, he finished his business and returned to Mrauk-U, where later in the year he succeeded his father when his father died.

Later these two children of Min Mangri were baptized by the Catholic priests. This son of Min Mangri afterwards became known as Dom Martin, a Catholic and the first Arakanese who went to Europe.

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The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan (REFERENCES)

By U SAN THA AUNG

REFERENCES

1) Ali, S.M. “Arakan Rule in Chittagong (1550 – 1666 A.D)” JASP (1967) pp. 333 – 351.

2) Bapat, P.V. 2500 Years of Buddhism, New Delhi, 1976.

3) Basham, A.L. The Wonder that was India, Lodon, Fontana, 1967.

4) Benerji, R.D. Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval Sculpture, Delhi, 1933.

5) Bernot, L. Les Paysans Arakanais due Pakistan Orientale, 2 vols., Paris 1967.

6) Bhattacharrya, B. The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta, 1958.

7) Bhattasali, N.K. Iconography of Buddhist and Brahamanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, Dacca, 1929.

8) Buler, G. “Specimens of Jaina Sculpture from Mathura” E.I. II, p. 314.

9) Chan Htwan Oung “The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan,” JBRS, II, (1912) pp. 262 – 265.

10) Coomaraswamy, A.K. “The Buddha’s Cuda, Hair, Usnisa and Crown”, JRAS (1928) pp. 815 – 840.

11) Dani, A.H. Indian Palaeography, Oxford, 1963.

12) Dani, A.H, “Mainamati Plates of the Chandras” Pakistan Archaeology, III (1969) pp. 22 – 55.

13) Doewai, Rakhaing Razawingri, (Burmese), Palm – leaf manuscript.

14) Forchhammer, E. Papers on Subjects Relating to the Archaeology of Burma: Arakan, Rangoon, 1891.

15) Foucher, A. The Beginnings of Buddhist Art, Paris, 1917.

16) Gutman P. Ancient Arakan, Ph. D Thesis, Australian National University, 1976, Unpublished.

17) Hall, D.G.E. “Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan,” JBRS, XXVI (1937) pp. 1 – 10.

18) Harvey, G.E. History of Burma, London, 1925.

19) Humphrey, C. Buddihism, London, Penguin Books, 1975.

20) Johnston, E.H. “Some Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan,” BSOAS XI (1944) pp. 375 – 385.

21) Kyeethelayhtat Sayadaw, Jinatthapakasani, 4 Vols, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1951.

22) Luce, G.H. Old Burma-Early Pagan, 3 Vols, New York, 1969.

23) Mai, U Rajawingri, (Burmese), Palm – leaf Manuscript.

24) Mya, U “A note on the Buddha’s Footprints in Burma”, ASI, (1930 – 34) pt. 2. pp. 320 – 331.

25) Nyanatiloka, The Word of the Buddha, Colombo, 1952.

26) Ojha, G.M. Bharatiya Pracina Lipi Mala, New Delhi, 1918.

27) Phayre, A.H. “An Account of Arakan” JASB, X (1841) pp. 679 – 711.

28) Phayre, A.H. “On the History of Arakan”, JASB, XIII (1844) pp. 23 – 52.

29) Ray, N. Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma, Calcutta, 1936.

30) San Shwe Bu, “The Legend of the Early Aryan Settlement of Arakan, JBRS, XI, 2, p.66.

31) San Shwe Bu , “The History of Arakan”, JBRS, XII, 3, p. 167.

32) San Shwe Bu, “The Story of Mahamuni”, JBRS, VI (1916) pp. 226 -229.

33) San Tha Aung Scripts of Arakan, 6th Century and before, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1974.

34) San Tha Aung, Anandacandra, King of 8th Century Vesali, Arakan, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1975.

35) Shah, U.P. Iconography: Jaina Art, and Architecture, Vol. III, New Delhi, 1975, p. 492

36) Smith, V.A. The Early History of India, Oxford, 1924.

37) Sircar, D.C. “Inscriptians Copper-Plate Grant from Arakan”, EI, XXXVII (1957), pp. 103 -109.

38) Sircar, D.C. “Fragmentary Copper-Plate Grant from Arakan”, EI, XXXVII (1967), pp. 61 – 66.

39) Sivaramamurti, C. Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, Madras, 1952.

40) Thin Kyi Daw “Arakanese Capitals: A preliminary Survey of their Geographical Setting, JBRS, LIII (1970) pp. 1-14.





The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan


A BBREVIATIONS

BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London.

EI = Epigraphia Indica.

JASB = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.

JBRS = Journal of the Burma Research Society, Rangoon.

JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London.

JASP = Journal of the Asiatic Society, Pakistan.

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